Lesser-known invaders of India

India in its extensive history has been plagued by the destructive forces of invasions led by despotic individuals and merciless monarchs. Throughout history, we hear the names of different invaders whether it be the Greeks, Turks, Persians, Arabs, Portuguese, Dutch, Danes, French or British, though the latter would colonize India for about 200 years before India could be called a free and independent republic.

India's history textbooks refer greatly to Alexander's expansionist ideals and the Turks along with other Middle-Easterners desire to loot the "golden bird" of its riches and culture but other invaders have come but their tyranny has not been mentioned due to their small influence and short spans of rule. Although they are not mentioned or are mentioned with little significance, they are important to India's past as they have nonetheless influenced India's history to some extent. 

Much more crucial than these invaders' identity are the names of those heroic kings and courageous individuals who have successfully kept them at bay.

Achaemenid Empire's Conquest of the Indus Valley

The name of the ancient Persian Empire, it stretched from Anatolia and Egypt to Northern India and Central Asia. It began with Cyrus II who defeated the then king of Anatolia, Astyages in 550 BCE. He would annex Babylon and Egypt and add these legendary regions to his Empire. Known as Cyrus the Great, he would also include areas west of the Indus River, thus making it his kingdom's eastern boundary, around 535 BCE. His successor, Darius I would indulge in expansionist policies and would annex North-Western part of the Indian subcontinent. Darius would cross the Himalayas and would conquer regions up to the Jhelum River in Punjab. The Behistun Inscription dates the conquest to 518 BCE. Whole of Indus Valley would be incorporated into the Empire and cities such as Gandhara, Sattagydia, Hindush, Maka etc. would become a "satrap No. 20" (Persians would govern different areas of their Empire and divide them into "satraps") of Persian Empire. These parts would be part of the Empire for another 200 years till Xerxes I would be defeated in a battle against the Greeks, leading to the downfall of the Empire. Persian influences would still linger on in Indian subcontinent in culture, religion, military, coinage, architecture and administration.

Indo-Greek Kingdom of North-West India

After Alexander's death, his empire was divided among his generals. In India, regions given to Seleucus Nikator who began the Seleucid kingdom. Seleucid kingdom did not last long as he had to cede much of his territories to Chandragupta Maurya in the Seleucid-Mauryan War between 303 and 305 BCE. Greeks or Yavanas (Greeks in Sanskrit) were already assimilated within the Indian society and many would call India their home. They were merchants, soldiers, ambassadors, artists etc. and were influential in Indian society. This would help Greeks to conquer regions and set up independent kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent.

The Indo-Greek kingdom was Hellenistic in nature and was set up by the Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius when he invaded India around 180 BCE. He would also conquer southern Afghanistan and parts of Punjab. The name 'Indo-Greek' thus came about as these monarchs would imbibe Indian characteristics and culture on top of their Greek heritage.  They ware well-known for their coinage representing both Hindu and Greek motifs and inscribed in bilingual writing. After the demise of Demetrius, the empire would be fragmented and several individuals would contest for the throne. Among them, Apollodotus I would be king and would be the first true Indo-Greek king. His kingdom would also include Gandhara and west Punjab.

Pictorial representation of King Milinda and Bhikku Pesala

(Milinda Panha)

The most celebrated monarch would be Menander I who would influence Indian society in unimaginable ways. His empire extended from Kabul River in west to Ravi River in the east and Swat Valley in the north to Arachosia. Indian sources also posit that Rajasthan and Pataliputra were also part of his empire. A convert to Buddhism, he helped in the spread of the faith in his empire. The Milinda Panha validates his Buddhist connections. He died in 130 BCE and was succeeded by Strato I. With much internal conflicts, civil wars and foreign advances, the Indo-Greek kingdom led by Strato II would end around 10 BCE when he would be vanquished by the Indo-Shaka ruler, Rajuvula.

Indo-Scythians and their defeat by Satavahanas and Guptas

Also known as Shakas or Sakas, these were nomadic tribes originating from Central Asia. They were Iranian speaking tribe who were excellent archers and horsemen. They came to light during the decline of the Maurya Empire in which many invaders would invade the Indian subcontinent to claim kingship. One of them, the Shakas would be successful in entering India in the northwest around 1 BCE. The empire began with Maues I (90/87 BCE-70/67 BCE). He ruled over Gandhara with capital at Sirkap (Pakistan). He would unsuccessfully conquer the Indo-Greeks which his son Azes I would do so after he would come to the throne.

The Shakas would become satraps and two different Shaka kingdoms would emerge, the Western Kshatrapas and the Northern Satraps. The Western Kshatrapas would rule over north-western India and was founded by Chasthana (78-130 AD). The "Saka Era" is known to have begun from his ascension in 78 AD. Rudraman I (grandson of Chasthana) would be considered the greatest rulers of the Western Kshatrapas ruling from 130 to 150 AD. His kingdom would include Konkan areas, Narmada valley, Kathiawar region and parts of Gujarat and Malwa. He was a Hindu convert who supported Sanskrit literature and culture. He had marital relations with the Satavahanas. The Western Kshatraps would continue to exist till Rudrasimha III.

The Northern Satraps came up to be when the Shakas would conquer Mathura from the local Datta Dynasty around 60 BCE. Their dynasty would begin by Hagamasha (1 BCE) and would be followed by Hagana around the same time. Rajuvula (10 CE) would be the greatest king titling himself as Mahakshatrapa (Great Satrap). He is credited with the establishment of the Mathura lion capital which states of a grant of a stupa by his wife, Nadasi Kasa. Rajuvula would be succeeded by his son Sodasa. Bhadayasa, another ruler, would rule Eastern Punjab. After Sodasa, other successors would include Kharapallana and Vanaspara.                                                                                                                                                 Mathura lion capital

The decline of the Shaka Era would occur at the hands of the Satavahana king, Gautamiputra Satakarni. In northwest India and Pakistan, it would decline after the death of Azes II by the Kushanas. In western India the last Shaka ruler Rudrasimha III would be defeated by Chandragupta II of Gupta Dynasty in 4 AD.

 Indo-Parthians and Indian subcontinent

The Parthian Empire was formed after the downfall of the Greeks when Arsaces would conquer Parthia in 247 BCE. Originating from the Parni tribe of Central Asia and having Iranian roots, they were initially part of the Seleucid Empire as a satrap. The Parthian kingdom would last from 247 BCE to 257 CE stretching from the Mediterranean in the west to India and China in the east. Mithridates (171-132 BCE) would also conquer Bactria, Media, Babylon and the city of Susa in Elamite. Mithridates II (124-88 BCE) would add Albania, Armenia and Dura- Europos (Syria) to the domain.

The Indo-Parthian kingdom would emerge when Parthians would require Arsacid kings to protect their borders and trade routes. The Arsacids would eventually form their own sub-kingdom, the largest being the Indo-Parthian kingdom. The kingdom would last from 19 to 226 CE and was founded by Gondophares in 1 BCE. Gondophares, initially a governor stationed at Seistan (Iran), he would launch conquests against Indo-Scythians and Indo-Greeks and conquered Arachosia, Gandhara, Pakistan and north-western India. He would later on declare his independence from Parthian Empire and establish his capital at Takshasila. Indian accounts refer to them as Pahlavas. Unfortunately, the kingdom has not left many records of their history and are only known from their coinage which represented Greek and Parthian elements.

Gondophares would title himself as King of Kings in his coins. The dynasty would include successors taking up the name Gondophares. They would be heavily represented in Buddhist art such as in the stone palettes and sculpture. They also have been credited for the construction of Takht-i-Bahi ( Buddhist monastery in Mardan, Pakistan) from where much knowledge of the empire is known from. The empire would slowly disintegrate with the rise of Kushanas around 1 CE.

Kushanas and their defeat by Samudragupta

Belonging to nomadic tribe of Yueh-chih in Kanchu province of China, they were part of the five tribes who ruled over the Kuei valley north of the Oxus river. The name Kushana is Indianized version of Gianshu. Around 30 BCE, they would overpower the other tribes and annex their territories. They were very powerful under Kujula Kadphises who around 1 CE, extended his rule up to Hindukush in Kabul valley. His successor Wema Kadphises would add Ganga-Yamuna doab to the empire. Hence their empire extended from Bihar in the east to Oxus river in the west including Central Asia, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Northern India. The empire would flourish under Kanishka in which Buddhist literature, art and architecture would prosper. The Gandhara School of Art, The Mathura School of Art and Amaravati School would flourish during  his reign. The school would patronize Greek, Roman, Buddhist                 Rabtak Inscription

and Hindu art. The Kushanas too would not leave their history behind and much of the information would be collected from their numismatic history. Rabtak inscription also gives detailed accounts of Kushanas. The Kushana empire would fragment into two namely Western Kushanas and Eastern Kushanas after Vasudeva's demise 225 AD. The Western branch would be conquered by Sassanians and the Eastern branch by Samudragupta by mid 4th century AD. 

Narsimhagupta Baladitya, Yashodharma of Malwa and the Hunas 

One of the lesser-known invaders to penetrate the Indian subcontinent were the Hunas. These warlike and the most cruel of all tribes of Central Asia, originate from the steppes of Central Asia. Nomadic in nature, they have familial relations with early Chinese, Iranians and Turks. Their origins are obscure but they invaded India around 458 AD when the glory of the majestic Guptas was ebbing after the death of Samudragupta. They entered into Punjab and quickly conquered Rajasthan, Jammu, Kashmir, Himachal and parts of Malwa. The weakened Guptas could not protect the north-west frontier and this led to Toramanna becoming Huna leader. The Hunas would keep invading and would reach the Gangetic valley until Skandagupta would successfully oust them out.

Hunas, now ousted, would wait until Skandagupta's death to attack again. In 470 AD, as luck would have it, Hunas would attack under the leadership of Mihirakula (Late Toramanna's son). He would turn out to be even crueler and more merciless than his father. He wrecked havoc on important cities of Gupta Empire, such as Gandhara and Takshasila, destroying Buddhist stupas and massacring Buddhist monks. He said to have also destroyed the University of Takshasila and the city ensuring it would never rise again. Gandhara was also sacked leaving it in turmoil and disarray.

Having conquered a vast area of Northern India, Indian monarchs felt the need to halt their ambitious expansion policies. The most integral being Yashodharma of Malwa and Narsimhagupta Baladitya of Gupta Empire.

Yashodharma of Malwa was a very powerful king having conquered territories that even the mighty Guptas could not conquer. Although a feudatory to the Guptas and belonging to the Aulikara Dynasty, he was able to defeat Mihirakula in 528 AD at Sondani. Mandsaur Inscriptions give details on the battle and the king's territorial achievements.

Sondani

                                                                             

Narsimhagupta Baladitya, though a devout Hindu was a great patron of Buddhism. He commemorated the construction of sangharama and viharas throughout his kingdom. When Mihirakula had begun destroying Buddhist monuments and killing innocent people, Baladitya saw it fit to protect them and hence guarded his kingdom's frontiers. Mihirakula asked for tribute to which Baladitya refused. This led to war. Mihirakula entered the kingdom and would pursue the king till the Bay of Bengal. In his pursuit, he would destroy Buddhist buildings in the capital city of Pataliputra. He would also destroy the auspicious Nalanda University. Mihirakula would face defeat at the hands of imperial Gupta army and Baladitya having recovered his kingdom would rebuild Nalanda University.